Rantai dingin farmasi adalah penjaga tak kasat mata yang menjaga vaksin Anda, biologis dan terapi lanjutan yang efektif dari pabrik ke pasien. More than half of vaccines are lost without proper temperature control, dan lebih 85 % biologi memerlukan penyimpanan dingin. With the rise of cell and gene therapies requiring ultra low temperatures and global supply chain disruptions, understanding how to maintain cold chain integrity is essential for everyone involved in healthcare. In this guide you’ll discover why the pharma cold chain matters, the technologies shaping it, and how you can stay compliant and sustainable while preparing for explosive growth.
Why a reliable pharmaceutical cold chain sangat penting: Learn why biologics and vaccines are so fragile and how improper handling leads to nearly half of vaccines being wasted.
Which technologies are transforming the cold chain: Discover how IoT sensors, AI and blockchain enable real time monitoring, predictive analytics and tamper proof traceability.
How packaging innovations secure your cargo: Understand passive and active packaging, phase change materials and reusable systems that maintain ultra low temperatures.
What regulatory and compliance frameworks apply: Explore Good Distribution Practice (PDB), Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP) and other guidelines, along with practical tips to avoid fines and product loss.
How sustainability and market trends will shape 2025: See how reusable packaging, renewable energy and regional innovations drive growth, and why the global pharma cold chain market is expected to soar.
Why is a Reliable Pharmaceutical Cold Chain Essential?
Your medications are living products that lose potency when exposed to the wrong temperature. Complex biologics such as monoclonal antibodies, insulins and recombinant proteins are particularly fragile; lebih dari 85 % require cold storage. Vaccines face similar challenges, dengan World Health Organization estimating that nearly half are wasted globally due to poor temperature control. Beyond vaccines, cell and gene therapies must be transported at −80 °C to −150 °C, while weight loss drugs like GLP 1 agonists need to stay between 2 °C dan 8 ° C.. Without a robust cold chain, these life saving therapies degrade, putting patient safety at risk and wasting billions of dollars in research and production.
Different Temperature Zones and the Therapies They Serve
| Therapy Category | Required Temperature | What This Means For You |
| Standard vaccines & peptides | 2 °C – 8 ° C. (didinginkan) | Use insulated containers and gel packs to maintain fridge level temperatures during transport – ideal for childhood vaccines and GLP 1 weight loss drugs. |
| Biologi (insulins, Antibodi monoklonal) | 2 °C – 8 ° C. for short term storage; −20 °C to −80 °C for longer term | Invest in cold rooms and freezers that can transition between refrigerated and frozen states. Real time monitors should alert you to deviations. |
| Cell & terapi gen | −80 °C to −150 °C (kriogenik) | Require cryogenic freezers or liquid nitrogen vapor storage. Portable cryogenic freezers with real time tracking are essential for transporting to clinics. |
Beyond these core categories, the cold chain extends to insulin for diabetes, blood coagulation factors, certain antibiotics, ophthalmic medications and diagnostic reagents. Each product demands precise temperature control and often requires separate shipping protocols, adding complexity to your logistics.
Risk Factors and Mitigation Strategies
The pharma cold chain is fraught with risks ranging from equipment failure to human error and unpredictable weather. A 2025 industry guide lists key risks and mitigation strategies:
Mechanical failure: Refrigeration units or sensors can break down, leading to temperature excursions. Mitigasi: Implement redundant equipment, schedule preventive maintenance and monitor equipment health with IoT sensors.
Human error: Mishandling, incorrect packing, delayed loading or poor documentation can compromise product integrity. Mitigasi: Train staff regularly, use checklists and automate data logging.
Supply chain disruptions: Strikes, border closures or transport delays prolong transit times. Mitigasi: Diversify carriers, plan alternative routes and maintain buffer stock.
Climate and environmental impacts: Heatwaves, storms and new disease patterns increase complexity. Mitigasi: Develop climate resilient infrastructure, monitor weather forecasts and invest in insulation and remote sensing.
Regulatory non compliance: Deviations from GMP/GDP or environmental rules can lead to fines and product recalls. Mitigasi: Align procedures with international guidelines, implement real time documentation and conduct regular audits.
Practical tip: Perform a hazard analysis and critical control point (Haccp) assessment of your supply chain to identify where temperature deviations might occur. Document every step with digital logs and blockchain to create immutable records for auditors.
Which Technologies Are Transforming the Pharmaceutical Cold Chain?
Traditional cold chain management relied on manual temperature logs and reactive interventions. Modern systems integrate sensors, analytics and smart contracts to create a connected, proactive network. These innovations not only preserve product integrity but also provide real time visibility and regulatory compliance.
IoT Sensors and Real Time Monitoring
IoT sensors have revolutionized cold chain visibility. Today’s pharmaceutical sensors go beyond temperature logging; they monitor humidity, light exposure, vibration and location. These multi parameter devices create detailed environmental profiles and transmit readings to cloud platforms at regular intervals, sometimes as often as every minute. High precision sensors achieve ±0.3 °C accuracy or better, with specialized applications reaching ±0.1 °C. Communication protocols such as cellular networks, LoRaWAN and Bluetooth Low Energy ensure reliable data transmission even in challenging environments, enabling sensors to operate for months or years on a single battery.
Integration with existing infrastructure makes IoT sensors highly adaptable: they can be embedded within thermal packaging, attached to product containers or installed in storage equipment. They connect seamlessly with warehouse and transportation management systems, automating data flow and reducing manual entry while ensuring compliance with industry standards. Real time alerts trigger proactive interventions when environmental conditions deviate from thresholds. Multiple alert levels enable graduated responses, from increased monitoring to immediate corrective action. Advanced systems even adjust refrigeration settings automatically or activate backup cooling based on sensor data.
Communication and Stakeholder Notifications
IoT monitoring platforms integrate with SMS, email and mobile applications to ensure that alerts reach the right people wherever they are. Field personnel can acknowledge alerts, document corrective actions and communicate status updates in real time. This connectivity supports location tracking and route optimization: GPS enabled sensors provide precise location data combined with environmental monitoring for complete shipment profiles. Geofencing applications trigger alerts when shipments deviate from predetermined routes, enhancing security and allowing rapid response to potential theft or diversion.
Data Analytics and Compliance Support
IoT systems generate massive datasets that feed predictive analytics and regulatory compliance tools. Automated reporting platforms produce standardized documentation that meets Good Distribution Practice (PDB) and FDA requirements. Built in encryption and access controls preserve data integrity and prevent unauthorized modification. The integration of IoT with blockchain creates immutable records of temperature and location, ensuring product authenticity and enabling smart contracts to verify compliance automatically. Case studies from the COVID 19 pandemic report reductions of up to 75 % in temperature related product failures and payback periods of less than two years when implementing comprehensive IoT monitoring.
AI and Predictive Analytics
Artificial intelligence transforms sensor data into actionable insights. AI algorithms analyze traffic patterns, weather conditions, vehicle availability and historical temperature profiles to optimize delivery routes and avoid delays. Predictive maintenance models detect unusual fluctuations in refrigeration units and schedule repairs before failures occur. Selama pandemi, AI powered tools rerouted critical shipments in real time to avoid disruptions. Platforms like TransVoyant and CargoSense forecast issues before they happen, helping you prevent delays or temperature excursions.
Practical tip: Use digital twins to create virtual replicas of your shipments. These models allow you to monitor temperature, location and vibration in real time and run simulations to identify potential weak points. Integrate predictive maintenance tools to schedule service before equipment failure.
Blockchain for Traceability and Smart Contracts
Blockchain provides tamper proof logs that record every handoff in the supply chain. In a pharma cold chain, each event—manufacturing, penyimpanan, transit—is timestamped and stored on a distributed ledger. Data cannot be altered without consensus, creating trust among regulators, manufacturers and patients. This transparency deters counterfeiters and simplifies audits. Smart contracts automatically verify compliance and trigger actions such as product release or payment based on sensor data. Blockchain integration is particularly valuable for high value biologics and investigational products where security is paramount.
Summary of Cold Chain Technologies
| Teknologi | Fungsi Utama | Manfaat praktis |
| IoT multi parameter sensors | Measure temperature, kelembaban, lampu, vibration and location with ±0.3 °C accuracy; transmit data via cellular, LoRaWAN or BLE | Continuous real time visibility; early warnings for excursions; integration with warehouse and transport systems; long battery life |
| Ai & predictive analytics | Analyze sensor data, traffic and weather; forecast equipment failures; optimize routes | Prevent unplanned downtime; mengurangi penundaan; improve on time delivery rates and reduce product loss |
| Blockchain & smart contracts | Create immutable records; automate compliance verification | Meningkatkan ketertelusuran, deters tampering, simplifies audits and triggers automatic actions based on real time data |
User Tips for Adopting Smart Technologies
Pilot new systems: Begin with one product line before scaling across your portfolio. Use test shipments to validate IoT sensors, AI route planners and blockchain integrations.
Ensure interoperability: Choose platforms that communicate with regulators and supply chain partners via standardized formats.
Invest in predictive maintenance: Analyze sensor data to schedule service for refrigeration units before they fail.
Leverage digital twins: Simulate shipments to identify vulnerabilities and train your team on responding to deviations.
Studi kasus: Selama pandemi COVID 19, pharmaceutical companies used IoT sensors and AI route optimization to ensure that ultra cold vaccines remained within −70 °C throughout distribution. Real world implementations reported 75 % reductions in temperature related product failures and quick return on investment.
How Do Packaging Innovations Secure the Pharmaceutical Cold Chain?
Maintaining temperature integrity is impossible without robust packaging. The packaging market is booming: the pharmaceutical cold chain logistics packaging segment was worth USD 5.48 miliar masuk 2024 dan diproyeksikan untuk mencapai USD 13.64 miliar oleh 2034. Passive packaging—including insulated shippers and phase change materials—accounts for lebih 72 % dari pasar, and small boxes alone represent 44.1 % pengiriman. This growth is driven by increasing demand for vaccines and biologics, the expansion of online pharmacies and stricter regulatory requirements.
Bahan Perubahan Fase, Vacuum Insulation and Passive Cooling
Bahan perubahan fasa (PCMS) absorb or release heat as they change state, menjaga suhu internal tetap stabil. When combined with vacuum insulation panels (VIP), they provide long qualification times without external power. Passive solutions such as gel packs and dry ice are essential for shipments requiring days of temperature control. Recent innovations include cryogenic dewars—insulated containers using passive cooling technologies to maintain ultra low temperatures below −150 °C. CSafe’s Multi Use Dewars combine passive cooling with built in real time tracking, ensuring continuous visibility and compliance.
Reusable Containers and Sustainable Systems
Sustainability is driving packaging innovation. Itu pasar kemasan rantai dingin yang dapat digunakan kembali diperkirakan akan tumbuh USD 4.97 miliar masuk 2025 ke USD 9.13 miliar oleh 2034. Reusable insulated containers and gel packs can be collected, disanitasi dan dipindahkan, reducing waste and lowering long term costs. Systems like the Elit Menara CCT, launched in April 2025, menawarkan a dapat digunakan kembali, temperature controlled pallet shipper that is lighter and cost efficient, capable of handling large consignments. Namun, reusable systems require reverse logistics and cleaning protocols to prevent contamination.
Packaging Innovations Summary
| Jenis pengemasan | Fitur utama | Your Benefits |
| Passive shippers with PCMs and VIPs | Maintain stable temperatures without power; can be recharged; range from 2 °C to −80 °C | Long duration cooling; hemat biaya; suitable for biologics and frozen products |
| Cryogenic dewars & portable freezers | Menjaga −80 °C to −150 °C; use passive cooling and real time tracking | Essential for cell and gene therapies; allow transport of ultra cold cargo with minimal infrastructure |
| Wadah yang dapat digunakan kembali | Robust insulation; designed for multiple cycles; require cleaning and tracking | Reduce waste and cost; align with circular economy principles; support sustainability goals |
Practical Tips for Choosing Packaging
Map your product portfolio: Determine which therapies fall into refrigerated, frozen or cryogenic categories and select packaging accordingly.
Validate your containers: Ensure insulated shippers and PCMs meet ISTA or FDA validation standards. Test packaging under real conditions and adjust pack out procedures based on payload size.
Precondition properly: Pre cool containers and gel packs to the correct temperature before loading. Inadequate preconditioning is a common cause of temperature excursions.
Invest in real time tracking: Use sensors embedded in packaging to monitor internal temperatures during transit.
Plan reverse logistics: If using reusable packaging, partner with providers who offer return services, tracking and sanitization.
Studi kasus: Di dalam 2025, a life sciences company deployed CSafe’s Multi Use Dewars combined with passive cooling and GPS tracking. The system maintained ultra low temperatures for cell therapy shipments over several days and reduced shipping costs through reusability.
What Are the Compliance and Regulatory Requirements for the Pharma Cold Chain?
Regulatory compliance is non negotiable in pharmaceuticals. Cold chain operations must adhere to standards like Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP), Praktek Distribusi yang Baik (PDB), the Drug Supply Chain Security Act (DSCSA) and country specific regulations. Failure to comply can lead to product recalls, financial penalties, reputational damage and serious health risks.
Temperature Ranges and Continuous Monitoring
Regulators define temperature zones for different products: 2 °C–8 °C for refrigerated goods, −20 °C for standard frozen products and −70 °C or lower for ultra low storage. Maintaining these ranges requires continuous monitoring with calibrated data loggers and real time systems. Automated devices should alert personnel via SMS, email or visual indicators when deviations occur. All equipment must be validated and regularly calibrated according to NIST or UKAS standards, with documented testing and backup procedures.
Dokumentasi, Traceability and Contingency Planning
Compliance requires meticulous record keeping: chain of custody documentation, temperature logs, validation reports and audit trails must be maintained for each shipment. Contingency plans are essential for power outages, equipment failures and route disruptions. The FDA’s collaboration with the DSCSA Governance Group in January 2025 aims to end exemptions and enforce traceability across the pharmaceutical supply chain. GDP guidelines also require robust staff training, secure storage, specialist packaging and validated cleaning procedures.
Regulatory Standards at a Glance
| Standar | Tujuan | Practical Actions |
| Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP) | Ensures products are consistently produced and controlled to quality standards | Validasi peralatan, calibrate sensors, document processes and train staff |
| Praktek Distribusi yang Baik (PDB) | Governs storage and transport to maintain quality throughout distribution | Use validated warehouses, maintain secure transport, monitor temperatures continuously and maintain documentation |
| Undang-Undang Keamanan Rantai Pasokan Narkoba (DSCSA) | Enhances traceability and verifies product authenticity across the US supply chain | Adopt serialization, track products through blockchain or digital systems, prepare for full enforcement of DSCSA requirements |
| WHO Vaccine Storage Guidelines | Emphasize proper temperature management to avoid vaccine waste | Follow recommended storage conditions; use real time monitoring to reduce vaccine wastage |
Practical Compliance Tips
Lakukan audit rutin: Schedule internal and third party audits to verify adherence to GMP and GDP requirements.
Train and retrain employees: Provide continuous education on handling, packaging and emergency procedures.
Digitize documentation: Implement electronic quality management systems that store temperature logs, certificates and corrective actions for quick retrieval during inspections.
Kembangkan rencana darurat: Equip facilities with back up generators, redundant freezers and alternative transport routes to manage power failures and delays.
Collaborate with specialised carriers: Partner with logistics providers experienced in cryogenic shipments and compliant with global regulations.
Pelajaran dunia nyata: The WHO estimates that hingga 50 % of vaccines are wasted because of improper temperature control. By implementing validated equipment, continuous monitoring and rigorous record keeping, you can prevent such losses and safeguard public health.
How Are Sustainability and Innovations Driving Greener Pharma Cold Chains?
Environmental concerns are pushing the pharmaceutical industry toward greener practices. Cold chain operations consume significant energy and rely on refrigerants that can leak greenhouse gases. Namun, innovations in packaging, energy use and materials offer opportunities to reduce your carbon footprint without compromising product integrity.
Reusable Packaging and Circular Economy Models
Switching from single use to reusable packaging reduces waste and long term costs. The reusable packaging market is forecast to nearly double by 2034. Multi use containers, gel packs and data loggers can be recovered, disanitasi dan dipindahkan. A global network allows containers to be reconditioned near the destination, saving on transport emissions. Adoption of circular models requires investment in reverse logistics and cleaning infrastructure, but the environmental benefits are substantial.
Solar and Renewable Energy Cold Storage
Cold storage is energy intensive, particularly in regions with unreliable grids. Solar powered units provide a sustainable alternative for rural areas and emerging markets. Di dalam 2024, commercial electricity cost on average 13.10 cents per kilowatt hour, while solar power can cost between 3.2 Dan 15.5 cents. Renewable energy reduces reliance on diesel generators and helps maintain temperatures during outages, making it ideal for last mile distribution in Southeast Asia and Africa. Selain itu, hydrogen powered refrigeration trucks and biomethane fuels are gaining traction.
Eco Friendly Materials and Smart Packaging
Biodegradable materials such as seaweed based bioplastics and recyclable foams are replacing expanded polystyrene and polyurethane. Smart labels and RFID tags provide real time temperature and location data, enabling predictive interventions and proving compliance. Portable cryogenic freezers combine ultra low cooling with real time tracking and alarms, maintaining temperatures of −80 °C to −150 °C. These innovations reduce waste and improve efficiency.
Regional Innovation Hubs and Emerging Markets
Southeast Asia is becoming a hub for blockchain, solar powered storage and AI assisted logistics, driven by investment in remote infrastructure and local manufacturing. Government incentives and private partnerships support renewable energy adoption, IoT integration and sustainable packaging, positioning the region as a global leader in pharma cold chain innovation.
Sustainable Practices Summary and Tips
Audit your packaging mix: Evaluate the life cycle impact of single use vs. reusable containers and choose suppliers that offer recycling programs.
Adopt renewable energy: Invest in solar or biomass solutions for warehouses and distribution hubs, and convert fleets to low carbon fuels.
Localize manufacturing: Shorter supply chains reduce transit times and emissions. Consider regional hubs to minimize time under refrigeration.
Promote reuse culture: Train staff to handle returnable packaging correctly and offer incentives for customers to return containers.
Implement smart indicators: Use RFID tags, time temperature indicators and digital twins to track product conditions and act before spoilage occurs.
Pertumbuhan Pasar, Trends and Opportunities Through 2025 dan seterusnya
The pharmaceutical cold chain market is expanding rapidly, fueled by the rise of biologics, gene therapies and global vaccine distribution. Market research forecasts highlight robust growth across logistics, packaging and related technologies:
Pharmaceutical cold chain logistics market: DataM Intelligence values the market at US$ 18.61 miliar masuk 2024 and projects it will reach US$ 27.11 miliar oleh 2033 di a CAGR dari 4.3 %. Sekitar 30 % of drugs are biologics, creating greater demand for ultra cold logistics. North America holds the largest share (42.87 %) thanks to advanced healthcare systems and high biologics uptake.
Pharma logistics market (overall): While non cold chain still dominates, the cold chain segment is growing fastest at 9.8 % CAGR due to vaccines, insulin and oncology drugs. Storage accounts for two thirds of this market, reflecting the need for specialized warehouses.
Cold chain packaging market: Future Market Insights projects the global pharmaceutical cold chain packaging market to grow from USD 20.6 miliar masuk 2025 ke USD 83.2 miliar oleh 2035, with passive packaging holding 72.5 % share. Towards Packaging predicts the logistics packaging segment will rise from USD 5.48 miliar masuk 2024 ke USD 13.64 miliar oleh 2034.
Cold chain monitoring & IoT market: The market for IoT monitoring systems is projected to reach USD 29.6 miliar oleh 2035, tumbuh di 13.9 % CAGR, driven by real time monitoring and predictive analytics. Hardware (sensor, gateways) accounts for 46.8 % of this market, with small and medium enterprises representing nearly 56 % of adopters.
Cell and gene therapy logistics: The cell and gene therapy CDMO market is expected to soar from USD 6.31 miliar masuk 2024 ke USD 74.03 miliar oleh 2034, requiring robust ultra low temperature logistics. Advanced packaging and cryogenic freezers are critical for these therapies.
Regional Insights
Amerika Utara: Dominant due to early adoption of biologics and strong regulatory frameworks; advanced warehousing and real time monitoring enable high market share.
Asia Pasifik: Rapid growth thanks to investments in manufacturing capacity, blockchain innovations, solar powered storage and e commerce expansion. Countries like Singapore and Malaysia are becoming innovation hubs.
Eropa: Focus on sustainable logistics, stringent GDP compliance and digital transformation. The move toward –15 °C storage for frozen foods—promoted by coalitions to reduce carbon footprint—may influence pharmaceutical cold chains.
Emerging Trends and Opportunities
Control towers & digital twins: Centralized platforms monitor shipments in real time and create virtual replicas for predictive interventions.
Cerdas & kemasan berkelanjutan: Bahan perubahan fasa, vacuum insulation and smart labels become standard.
Regional innovation hubs: Southeast Asia is investing heavily in blockchain, AI logistics and solar storage.
Dapat digunakan kembali & circular solutions: The reusable packaging market is expected to nearly double by 2034, creating new business models.
Strategic partnerships and acquisitions: Major players are acquiring logistics firms to expand global networks and integrate technology.
Pertanyaan yang sering diajukan
What is the pharmaceutical cold chain?
It is the network of temperature controlled storage, packaging and transportation used to keep vaccines, biologics and cell therapies effective from manufacturing to patient. Without a cold chain, products can degrade, become ineffective or unsafe.
How do I maintain temperature integrity during shipping?
Use validated insulated containers, bahan perubahan fase, bungkus gel atau es kering. Pre condition vehicles and packaging, monitor temperatures in real time and train staff on proper loading procedures.
What technologies are shaping the pharma cold chain?
IoT sensors monitor multiple parameters and send alerts. AI optimizes routes and predicts equipment failures. Blockchain creates tamper proof logs and smart contracts automate compliance.
How does blockchain improve transparency?
It records each handoff and sensor reading in a distributed ledger that cannot be altered without consensus. This ensures regulators and partners can verify product authenticity and compliance.
What are the benefits of sustainable cold chain packaging?
Reusable containers and eco friendly materials reduce waste and carbon emissions. Solar powered storage lowers energy costs and emissions.
How should I prepare for 2025 cold chain trends?
Assess your current capabilities, adopt IoT and AI for visibility, explore blockchain pilots, invest in sustainable packaging and plan for growth in ultra low temperature therapies.
Saran
Kunci takeaways: The pharmaceutical cold chain safeguards complex medicines like vaccines, biologi dan terapi gen. Lebih dari 85 % biologi memerlukan penyimpanan dingin, and nearly half of vaccines are wasted without proper temperature control. Advanced technologies—Sensor IoT, AI and blockchain—provide real time visibility, predictive analytics and traceability. Inovasi kemasan such as phase change materials, cryogenic dewars and reusable containers maintain ultra low temperatures. Compliance with GMP, GDP and DSCSA is essential to avoid product loss and legal risks. Keberlanjutan is a growing priority; kemasan yang dapat digunakan kembali, solar powered storage and eco friendly materials can reduce your carbon footprint. Market forecasts predict significant growth across logistics, packaging and monitoring technologies through 2035.
Panduan yang dapat ditindaklanjuti:
Assess your portfolio: Identify which products require refrigerated, frozen or cryogenic conditions and evaluate your storage and transport capacity accordingly.
Menerapkan pemantauan cerdas: Deploy IoT sensors and predictive analytics to detect deviations early, optimize routes and schedule maintenance.
Tingkatkan kemasan: Invest in validated containers with phase change materials and consider reusable options or cryogenic dewars for ultra low shipments.
Tetap patuh: Align processes with GMP/GDP, adopt digital documentation and prepare for DSCSA enforcement. Train staff regularly and perform audits.
Mengadopsi praktik berkelanjutan: Choose eco friendly materials, implement solar or renewable energy solutions and promote a reuse culture within your organization.
Plan for growth: Pantau tren pasar, invest in additional capacity and cryogenic capabilities, diversify logistics partners and explore regional hubs.
Dengan mengikuti rekomendasi ini, you can safeguard your products, meet regulatory requirements, reduce waste and position your organization for success in the rapidly evolving pharmaceutical cold chain landscape.
Tentang Tempk
Pada Tempk, we specialize in temperature controlled packaging and monitoring solutions for the pharmaceutical industry. R&D team designs validated insulated containers, portable cryogenic freezers and IoT enabled monitoring systems that keep medicines safe from factory to patient. We leverage our global network of logistics partners and service centers to provide reliable delivery across continents. By combining deep industry expertise with cutting edge technology, we help you comply with regulations, reduce waste and protect patient health. Contact our experts today for a consultation and discover how we can optimize your pharma cold chain.
Panggilan untuk bertindak: Ready to safeguard your supply chain? Reach out to Tempk’s specialists to discuss customized solutions and implement the next generation of cold chain technology.
